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How is gasoline obtained from oil?
The physical process itself consists of heating the oil and evaporating the required compounds from it in turn. The process occurs at atmospheric pressure and in a closed container in which a gas exhaust tube is installed. When heated, volatile compounds begin to evaporate from oil: Temperature from 35 to 200 ° C - we get gasoline.
Direct distillation
This method involves heating the raw material. Each fraction of the liquid begins to evaporate at a certain temperature. This indicator is lowest for hydrocarbon gases, and highest for fuel oil.
The distillation process takes place in special columns. The resulting vapors condense separately at different levels. The result is fuel distillate and residues, which are then used for other purposes.
With direct distillation, the volume of gasoline produced is 20–25% of the original mass of raw materials. This fuel has an octane number from 92 to 95.
Example. Oil density is 900 kg/m³. 1 barrel of liquid weighs: 158.988 × 0.9 = 143.09 kg. The mass of gasoline obtained from this quantity from raw materials will be: 143.09 × 25% = 35.78 kg. With a fuel density of 755 kg/m³, its output will be: 35.78 / 0.755 = 47.38 liters.
Cracking
The method is a high-temperature treatment with the participation of catalysts. In this case, carbon bonds are broken and free radicals are simultaneously formed. The raw material undergoes dehydrogenation, isomerization, as well as polymerization and condensation. As a result of the last two processes, cracking residue and petroleum coke are formed. The yield of light petroleum products after such processing reaches 60% of the initial mass of the liquid.
Example. The density of Brent raw materials is 825 kg/m³. Weight of 1 barrel: 158.988 × 0.825 = 131.17 kg. The maximum gasoline yield will be: 131.17 x 60% = 78.7 kg. With a fuel density of 0.755 kg/m³, from 1 barrel of liquid you will get: 78.7 / 0.755 = 104.24 liters of fuel.
This method is 2 times more effective than the previous one. However, some brands (for example, Russian Urals) require additional cleaning before cracking.
Catalytic reforming
The method makes it possible to achieve a fuel yield equal to 70–72% of the mass of the raw material. The process occurs in the presence of bifunctional catalysts: platinum, iridium, gallium, etc.
The disadvantage of the technology is that it requires a liquid with a minimum density (about 800 kg/m³). This requires labor-intensive pre-processing.
Example. The mass of 1 barrel of light oil is: 158.988 × 0.8 = 127.19 kg. The maximum amount of gasoline will be: 127.19 × 72% = 91.6 kg. The fuel volume will be: 91.6 / 0.755 = 121.3 liters.
As a result, depending on the processing methods, from 47 to 104 liters of automobile fuel were obtained from a “barrel” of different grades of “black gold”.
Energy in dietetics and sports
Calories in dietetics
These amounts of sugar, apple, banana and salami contain one food calorie
Energy in sports and nutrition is usually measured in kilojoules or food calories. One such calorie is equal to 4.2 kilojoules, one kilocalorie, or a thousand calories used in physics. By definition, one food calorie is the amount of energy required to heat one kilogram of water by one kelvin. In dietetics, food calories are usually referred to simply as calories, which is what we will do later in this article. This sometimes causes confusion, but usually the reader can tell from the context which units are being referred to. Most foods contain calories. For example, one gram of fat contains 9 calories, one gram of carbohydrates and proteins contains 4 calories each, and alcohol contains 7 calories per gram. Some other substances also contain calories. This energy is released during metabolism and is used by the body to maintain life.
People trying to lose weight often count the calories they eat and subtract the calories they use during exercise. This is done to compare the number of calories not used for physical activity with the daily energy needs of the body in a relaxed state. Typically, to lose weight, the number of calories remaining must be less than what your body needs to keep you at rest. At the same time, doctors and nutritionists consider it dangerous to consume less than 1000 calories per day. The energy needs of the body in a state of rest can be calculated using a formula that takes into account the age, height, and weight of a person. This formula is designed for the average person, but each body stores and uses energy differently, depending on its needs. Therefore, it is not always possible to lose weight, even consuming fewer calories than the body requires according to this formula. The body often adapts to a lack of calories by slowing down its metabolism. As a result, the need for energy decreases, and calculations of a person’s daily energy needs using the formula lead to erroneous results. Despite this, many nutritionists recommend that those wishing to lose weight keep a daily record of their calorie intake.
Photos from the archives of iStockphoto.com
Calorie content
- an important concept in dietetics, which helps determine how energetically beneficial a given food is for the body. Calorie content is calculated by determining the number of calories in one gram of food product. Low calorie foods usually contain a lot of water. It fills the stomach, and a person feels full. As a result, it consumes fewer calories compared to other foods. For example, one hundred gram chocolate bar contains 504 calories. For comparison, such a chocolate bar will take a little less than half a glass. One and a half cups, or 320 grams, of low-fat, skinless, white cooked turkey contains about the same amount of calories. The same amount of calories is contained in 6.3 kilograms of cucumbers, that is, 25 cups. The same example with reduced portions looks like this: About 50 calories are contained in one chocolate candy, a tablespoon of turkey, and six cups of cucumbers. After such a portion of cucumbers, you are unlikely to want to eat, and after one chocolate candy, many will reach for a second and third. High calorie foods are usually unhealthy fatty and sugary foods that should be avoided. It is very useful for people on a diet to know the calorie content of different foods, but do not forget that when creating a menu, it is necessary to take into account not only the calorie content, but also the overall usefulness of each product. To achieve maximum results and improve your health, your diet must be balanced.
The nutritional value
- another useful concept in nutrition. This is the ratio of nutrients and beneficial substances needed by the body, such as vitamins, fiber, antioxidants and minerals, to the energy value of food. Thus, foods with high nutritional value contain a large amount of nutrients for each calorie of the product. Conversely, there are foods with “empty calories,” that is, with very little nutrients and low nutritional value. Alcohol, sweets, chips are some examples of such foods. It is best to exclude them from the diet, or at least limit them, because they do not provide the body with enough nutrients necessary for life.
Calories in sports
Energy is needed by humans and animals to maintain basal metabolism, that is, the body's metabolism at rest. This is the energy to maintain the functioning of the brain, tissues, and other organs. Energy is also needed for everyday physical activity and exercise. With a decrease in fat and an increase in muscle mass, the basal metabolism accelerates, and the need for energy increases. Therefore, any program for improving the body and losing weight should be based not only on reducing fat, but also on increasing muscle mass. To do this, it is important not only to eat right, but also to exercise, especially exercises that help develop muscles.
The amount of energy expended during exercise depends on whether it was aerobic or anaerobic. During aerobic exercise, oxygen breaks down glucose, releasing energy. During anaerobic exercise, oxygen is not used for this process; Instead, energy is produced by the reaction of creatine phosphate with glucose. Anaerobic exercise promotes muscle growth and is short-term and intense. Examples of such sports are sprinting and weightlifting. They cannot be continued for long due to the fact that lactic acid is produced in the process of obtaining energy. Its excess in the blood causes pain, and if a person continues the exercise despite this, he may lose consciousness. Aerobic exercise, on the other hand, can be continued for a long time, since it is less intense and the main thing in it is endurance. Such exercises include long-distance running, swimming and aerobics. With their help, the endurance of the muscles of the heart and respiratory system develops, as well as fat is burned and blood circulation improves.
Café De Paris, Quebec, Canada
Energy and weight loss
Although a lack of energy, relative to expenditure, usually leads to weight loss, this is not always the case, and often after the initial weight loss a person stops losing weight, or even gains weight, despite strict adherence to the diet. This occurs because the body adapts to a lack of calories, for example, as a result of a slower metabolism. In such cases, it is advised to change the exercise routine and menu, for example, temporarily change the type of sport and try to change the daily calorie intake. For example, each day you can consume either more or less calories than the established daily value, or you can set a weekly calorie intake instead of the daily value.
It is very important to remember that the body needs muscle mass to maintain a fast and healthy metabolism. Therefore, healthy diets should be combined with exercise aimed at developing muscles. Fat weighs less than muscle, so when diet and exercise increase muscle mass and decrease fat mass, overall weight increases, despite the fact that the body becomes healthier. Therefore, when improving the health of the body, it is wrong to monitor only weight loss. The ultimate goal is better to set fat loss and muscle development. This applies to both men and women. In addition to weighing, you can measure the percentage of fatty tissue in the body or check for changes in the size of the waist, hips, and other parts of the body where the body stores fat. Nutritionists and trainers advise aiming to reduce the body fat percentage to 14-24% for women and 6-17% for men.
Energy drink Red Bull
Another diet option is to gradually increase or decrease the number of calories in food over a certain period of time. After this, you must always return back to the established norm. Nutritionists also advise diversifying the amount of food at each meal, as well as the main type of food. For example, you could try eating a small carb-rich lunch for lunch the first day, and then eating a large lunch of vegetables and protein the next day. The main thing is that the body does not get used to the same type of food and amount of calories at each meal, and cannot adapt to the lack of energy by slowing down the metabolism. Many diets and exercises aim to speed up your metabolism because it allows the body to burn energy rather than storing it as fat. Therefore, when creating a nutrition and exercise plan, it is necessary to remember this problem of adaptation of the body. It is also important to do anaerobic exercise to increase muscle mass. A system of different exercises to which the body cannot completely get used will also help avoid adaptation.
Energetic drinks
Advertisers often use the word "energy" for advertising purposes. For example, energy drinks are advertised to increase performance and alertness. They usually contain psychostimulants such as caffeine, a lot of sugar, and sometimes vitamins and herbal extracts. Psychostimulants are used to ensure that the body produces the maximum amount of energy in a short period of time. This increases blood flow, blood pressure, pulse, and temperature. More oxygen enters the brain, and feelings of vivacity, strength, and energy increase. Energy drinks, despite their name, should not be consumed during exercise as they disrupt the electrolyte balance in the body. The high content of psychostimulants does increase alertness for a short time, but soon after this a decline and “withdrawal” occurs, reminiscent of the period of withdrawal from sugar, caffeine and alcohol. Many experience other side effects, including nausea, vomiting, headaches, high blood pressure, and insomnia. Doctors recommend avoiding energy drinks. Using the body's natural energy and timely rest is much better for the body than using psychostimulants.
Literature
Author of the article: Kateryna Yuri
What is a barrel and what are the advantages of this unit of measurement?
A barrel (translated from English as a barrel) is a unit of measurement used by global market participants as a standard when determining oil volumes. It is usually measured in gallons: 1 bbl – 42 gal. And, although this unit of account was taken from the English system of measures, it became known as the American oil barrel.
If we talk about where this term came from, then there are several explanations for this. However, the most reliable version seems to be the following: initially, oil was transported in barrels with an approximate volume of 42 gallons, so it was subsequently decided to use a barrel to determine the volume of this fossil fuel.
On the territory of the Soviet Union, and then the Russian Federation, when accounting for produced oil, it is customary to use tons, since this calculation method is most suitable for working with raw materials, the quality of which practically does not change. But other participants in the world market habitually operate mainly in terms of the barrel. Thus, it is easier to take into account the size of oil production at different densities of the substance itself and, naturally, varying from this mass. In addition, in the process of transporting fossil fuels by tanker or pipeline, volume is much more informative than weight.
Renewable Energy
Other alternative forms of energy are solar, ocean, and wind energy. Technologies for producing such energy have not yet been developed to such an extent that humanity can abandon the use of fossil fuels. However, thanks to government subsidies and the fact that they do not cause much harm to the environment, these types of energy are becoming increasingly popular.
Photovoltaic panel
Energy of sun
Experiments on harnessing solar energy began as early as 1873, but these technologies did not become widespread until recently. Solar energy is now growing rapidly, thanks in large part to government and international subsidies. The first solar energy centers appeared in the 1980s. Solar energy is most often collected and converted into electricity using solar panels. Sometimes heat engines are used, in which water is heated by solar heat. As a result, water vapor is formed, which drives the turbogenerator.
Wind turbine at Exhibition Place. Toronto, Ontario, Canada.
Wind energy
Humanity has used wind energy for many centuries. The wind was first used in navigation about 7,000 years ago. Windmills have been in use for several hundred years, with the first wind turbines and wind generators appearing in the 1970s.
Ocean Energy
The energy of tides has been used since the times of Ancient Rome, but people began to use the energy of waves and sea currents only recently. Currently, most tidal and wave power plants are just being developed and tested. The problems are mainly related to the high cost of building such stations and the shortcomings of today's technologies. Portugal, the UK, Australia and the US currently operate wave power plants, but many are still in the pilot phase. Scientists believe that ocean energy will become one of the main areas of green energy in the future.
Tidal turbine at the Canadian Science and Technology Museum in Ottawa
Biofuel
When biofuels are burned, energy is released that plants have converted from solar energy through the process of photosynthesis. Biofuels are widely used both for domestic purposes, such as heating homes and cooking, and as a fuel for transport. Varieties of biofuel - ethyl alcohol and oils - are produced from plant and animal fats. In motor vehicles, biodiesel fuel is used either in pure form or mixed with other types of diesel fuel.
Geothermal energy
The energy in the earth's core is stored as heat. The Earth's crust has been heated to very high temperatures since its formation and still maintains a high temperature today. The radioactive decay of minerals in the Earth's interior also produces heat. Until recently, access to this energy was possible only at the junctions of the earth's layers, in places where hot springs formed. More recently, the development of geothermal wells has begun in other geographic regions in order to begin to use this energy to generate electricity. Currently, the cost of energy obtained from such wells is very high, so geothermal energy is not used as widely as other types of energy.
Niagara River, near the William B. Rankin Power Plant. It was decommissioned in 2009. Niagara Falls, Ontario, Canada.
Hydropower
Hydropower is another alternative to fossil fuels. Hydropower is considered “clean” because, compared to burning fossil fuels, its production is less harmful to the environment. In particular, when generating hydropower, greenhouse gas emissions are negligible.
Hydropower is generated by the flow of water. Humanity has widely used this type of energy for many centuries and its production remains popular due to its low cost and availability. Hydroelectric power plants (HPPs) collect and convert the kinetic energy of river water flow and the potential energy of water in reservoirs using dams. This energy drives hydraulic turbines, which convert it into electricity. Dams are designed to take advantage of the difference in elevation between the reservoir from which the water flows and the river into which the water flows.
Hydroelectric power station named after Robert Moses. Lewiston, New York, USA
Despite the advantages of hydropower, it is associated with a number of problems, such as the harm caused to the ecosphere during the construction of dams. Such construction disrupts ecosystems, and living organisms are cut off from a vital environment in the ecosystem. For example, fish cannot swim upstream to spawn and do not always adapt to new conditions. The public cannot always control the work of energy companies, so the construction of new hydroelectric power plants may result in a humanitarian crisis. An example of such a crisis is the eviction of residents as a result of the construction of the Three Gorges hydroelectric dam in China. During the construction of this hydroelectric power station, the Chinese government evicted more than 1.2 million residents and flooded a huge area, including fields, industrial zones, cities, and towns. Household and industrial waste was washed away and clogged the new reservoir, poisoning plants and fish. Due to the huge amount of water in the reservoir, seismic activity has increased in the region. In 2011, the Chinese government acknowledged this and several other problems.
Metric Barrel Ratio
Although the oil barrel is not an official unit of measurement, it is used in many countries around the world and serves as a convenient form of calculating oil production and consumption, for example, the production of 1 barrel per day would be approximately 50 tons of oil per year. In weight terms, 1 barrel, depending on the density and temperature of the oil, is equal to approximately 136.4 kg.
Converting a barrel to metric weights and measures requires knowing the specific gravity of crude oil, which varies significantly from field to field. Typically, API (American Petroleum Institute) degrees are used to measure density. Thus, Russian URALS oil with a density of 31-33 API is heavier than North Sea oil BRENT with a density of 38 API.
Types of barrels
In accordance with the classification accepted in the world, barrels are divided into the following varieties:
- Oil barrel. An interesting fact is that American industrial enterprises engaged in oil production present fossil fuels to the world market only in barrels, but other countries, if necessary, are already converting this unit of measurement into tons or cubic meters. However, the situation is reversed if European oil producing companies supply raw materials to the United States.
- Liquid barrel. This unit of measurement depends on what exactly you plan to measure and where. For example, a barrel of beer in the US is equal to 31 gallons or 117 liters, and in the UK it is 43 US gallons or 164 liters. At the same time, a federal barrel in the United States is equivalent to 31 gallons or almost 117 liters.
- Dry barrel. It is commonly used as a measure of the volume of bulk goods in the United States. A dry barrel is equal to 7056 cubic inches, which corresponds to 115.6 liters. It is defined as the volume of a barrel, the length of the staves in which is 72 cm, the diameter of the ends is 43 cm, the distance between the top and the base is 66 cm, and the circumference of the central part of the container is 1.6 m. However, a separate barrel is allocated for measuring the volume of cranberries , which is 5826 cubic inches or 95.5 liters.
- Barrel as a unit of mass measurement. Used to determine the weight of certain products and materials. Typically a barrel is applied to corn (200 lbs or 90.7 kg) and rye flour (196 lbs or 88.9 kg), sugar (5 cubic lbs or 142 liters), Portland cement (376 lbs or 170.6 kg) and lime (280 pounds or 127 kg if you take a large barrel of lime, and with a small one the figure decreases to 180 pounds or 81.6 kg).
Barrel volume
As noted above, a barrel is not a single unit of measurement, but a whole system, the values of which vary depending on the substance being measured. For example, the English barrel was formed on the basis of the beer barrel, and since 1824 it has been equal to 163.66 liters. In the United States, the standard barrel for measuring liquid substances originated from the wine barrel and is currently equal to 119.24 liters. It is noteworthy that when measuring beer drinks, the barrel size changes and amounts to 117.3 liters. When determining the volume of dry substances in the United States, a “dry barrel” of 115.6 liters is used.
A French barrel or barrique is equal to 225 liters. It is used as a unit of measurement not in France, but in Haiti. By the way, translated from English, barrel means “barrel”, which, in fact, is clearly understandable when looking at the container.
How much oil is in a barrel
A barrel (from the English “barrel” - barrel) is a measure of volume, not weight. When this unit of measurement was born, a variety of goods were transported in barrels (from wine to oil), and the barrels themselves differed greatly from each other. Therefore, historically, there are several types of barrels:
- English barrel - 163.65 liters;
- “wine” barrel (“North American”) - 31.5 gallons - 119.24 liters;
- “oil” barrel – 42 gallons – 158.99 liters.
To measure the volume of production and consumption of crude oil on the market, it is the “oil” barrel, equal to 159 liters, that is used.
INTERESTING! However, the technology for producing gasoline from oil is such that if this same barrel of crude oil is processed and the output volumes of all products are measured, then this total volume will be 9 liters larger than the original “barrel” (159 liters). Therefore, when talking about the volume of production or consumption of “black gold”, “crude” is usually added to the word “oil”.
Barrel designation
The traditional abbreviation for an American barrel is bbl. Translation – blue barrel. Why “blue”? It is believed that this name “stuck” due to the fact that the oil industry used to transport crude oil in blue barrels. And even then, the invoices indicated the volume of oil in bbls, that is, the number of blue tanks transported, 42 gallons each.
Oil transportation by Standard Oil
It is also interesting that among Russian companies prices for crude oil are indicated in tons. Calculations based on documents are also carried out according to this scheme.
What kind of oil is used to produce gasoline?
A lot here depends on what the chemical structure of the oil is: how many impurities it contains, what its density is. The latter indicator for oil from different sources ranges from 730 to 1040 kg/m3 (that is, per 1000 liters). More precise data on varieties:
- “Super Light” – super light – up to 780 kg/m3;
- “Extra Light” – ultra-light – from 780 to 820 kg/m3;
- “Light” – light – from 820 to 870 kg/m3;
- “Medium” – average – from 870 to 920 kg/m3;
- “Heavy” – heavy – from 920 to 1000 kg/m3;
- “Extra Heavy” – extra heavy – more than 1000 (up to 1040) kg/m3.
We are used to distinguishing oil by grade, for example:
- Urals - its content of impurities (and, in particular, sulfur) does not exceed 1.2-1.4%, and the density is 860-871 kg/m3.
- Brent (or Brent mixture) is light or low sulfur with a sulfur content of 0.37%, and with a density of 825-828 kg/m3.
In general, there are 3 main oil brands on the world markets: West Texas Intermediate (WTI), Dubai Crude and the well-known Brent Blend. The Russian Urals grade is over-the-counter and trades at a significant discount from the Brent level. However, this does not mean that high-quality fuel cannot be produced from it; simply, Urals requires deeper preliminary purification from the impurities it contains.
How much gasoline is produced from oil (taking into account different technologies)
Why is the price of oil falling and the cost of gasoline rising? The fact is that the production of gasoline from oil involves the use of many other production factors (depending on the technology), which are not directly related to oil.
INTERESTING! When using classical cracking technology, the specific share of the cost of oil in the price of a conventional ton of gasoline with an octane number of 92-95 is only 42-44%.
Factors of production include:
- cost of electricity;
- depreciation of expensive equipment;
- excise taxes and VAT.
In crisis situations, government agencies tend to make extraordinary decisions. For example, the tax on mineral extraction is being reduced, and therefore, theoretically, the cost of a ton of crude oil used to produce gasoline should decrease.
But other taxes are increasing, which ultimately lead to higher prices for motor fuel. Therefore, one should not be surprised by such a paradox as the rise in prices for gasoline and diesel fuel while world oil prices are falling.
However, the above statements need proof. In this regard, it seems reasonable to estimate how much gasoline is produced from a barrel of oil to see whether the oil share of 42-44% of the total cost of a liter of gasoline is actually true.
Energy production
People have long learned to use energy to solve labor-intensive tasks with the help of technology. Potential and kinetic energy are used to do work, such as moving objects. For example, the energy of river water flow has long been used to produce flour in water mills. As more people use technology, such as cars and computers, in their daily lives, the need for energy increases. Today, most energy is generated from non-renewable sources. That is, energy is obtained from fuel extracted from the depths of the Earth, and it is quickly used, but not renewed with the same speed. Such fuels include, for example, coal, oil and uranium, which is used in nuclear power plants. In recent years, the governments of many countries, as well as many international organizations, such as the UN, have made it a priority to study the possibilities of obtaining renewable energy from inexhaustible sources using new technologies. Many scientific studies are aimed at obtaining such types of energy at the lowest cost. Currently, sources such as solar, wind and waves are used to generate renewable energy.
Energy for domestic and industrial use is usually converted into electricity using batteries and generators. The first power plants in history generated electricity by burning coal or using the energy of water in rivers. Later they learned to use oil, gas, sun and wind to generate energy. Some large enterprises maintain their power plants on site, but most of the energy is produced not where it will be used, but in the power plants. Therefore, the main task of energy engineers is to convert the energy produced into a form that allows the energy to be easily delivered to the consumer. This is especially important when expensive or hazardous energy production technologies are used that require constant supervision by specialists, such as hydro and nuclear power. That is why electricity was chosen for domestic and industrial use, since it is easy to transmit with low losses over long distances via power lines.
Transmission pylons near the Sir Adam Beck hydroelectric power station. Niagara Falls, Ontario, Canada.
Electricity is converted from mechanical, thermal and other types of energy. To do this, water, steam, heated gas or air drive turbines, which rotate generators, where mechanical energy is converted into electrical energy. Steam is produced by heating water using heat produced by nuclear reactions or by burning fossil fuels. Fossil fuels are extracted from the depths of the Earth. These are gas, oil, coal and other combustible materials formed underground. Since their quantity is limited, they are classified as non-renewable fuels. Renewable energy sources include solar, wind, biomass, ocean energy, and geothermal energy.
In remote areas where there are no power lines, or where economic or political problems regularly cause power outages, portable generators and solar panels are used. Generators running on fossil fuels are especially often used both in everyday life and in organizations where electricity is absolutely necessary, for example, in hospitals. Typically, generators operate on piston engines, in which fuel energy is converted into mechanical energy. Also popular are uninterruptible power supply devices with powerful batteries that charge when electricity is supplied and release energy during outages.
Florida Power and Light power plant. Port Everglade, Florida, USA. This power plant consists of four blocks and runs on gas and oil.
Energy produced by burning fossil fuels
Fossil fuels are formed in the earth's crust at high pressure and temperature from organic matter, that is, the remains of plants and animals. Basically, such fuel contains a large amount of carbon. When it burns, it releases energy as well as carbon dioxide (CO₂), one of the greenhouse gases. Fossil fuels are the main source of energy at the moment. However, the greenhouse gases released during its use pose a serious threat to the environment and aggravate global warming. Also, the use of this fuel leads to its rapid consumption, and humanity may be left without fuel if it is completely dependent only on fossil raw materials.
Nuclear power plant cooling towers. Photo from the archives of the site 123RF.com.
Atomic Energy
Nuclear energy is one of the alternative types of energy. It is released during a controlled nuclear fission reaction, during which the nucleus of an atom is divided into smaller parts. The energy released during this reaction heats the water and turns it into steam, which drives turbines.
Nuclear power is not safe. The most famous accidents in recent years occurred at the Chernobyl nuclear power plant (NPP) in Ukraine, at the Three Mile Island nuclear power plant in the United States, and at the Fukushima-1 nuclear power plant in Japan. After the Fukushima tragedy, many countries began to reconsider their domestic nuclear energy policies, and some, such as Germany, decided to abandon them. Germany is currently developing a program for the transition to other types of energy supply and the safe closure of existing power plants.
In addition to accidents, there is also the problem of storing spent nuclear fuel and radioactive waste. Some of the spent nuclear fuel is used in weapons production, medicine, and other industries. However, most radioactive waste cannot be used and therefore it is necessary to ensure its safe disposal. Each country that has nuclear power plants stores this waste differently, and many countries have laws prohibiting its import into the country. Radioactive waste is treated so that it does not enter the environment, does not decompose, and is convenient for storage, for example, by making it more compact. After this, they are sent for burial in long-term storage facilities at the bottom of seas and oceans, in geological structures, or in pools and special containers. Storage is associated with problems such as the high cost of processing and disposal, leakage of radioactive elements into the environment, lack of storage space, and the possibility of terrorist attacks at radioactive waste disposal sites.
Nuclear power plant in Pickering, Ontario, Canada
A much safer alternative is to produce nuclear energy through fusion. During this reaction, several nuclei collide at high speed and form a new atom. This happens because the forces that repel nuclei from each other are weaker at a short distance than the forces that attract them. A thermonuclear reaction also produces radioactive waste, but it ceases to be radioactive after about a hundred years, while the waste from a fission reaction does not decay for several thousand years. The fuel required for fusion reactions is less expensive than for fission reactions. The energy costs of thermonuclear reactions currently do not justify their use in the energy sector, but scientists hope that in the near future this will change and nuclear power plants around the world will be able to produce nuclear energy in this way.
How much gasoline is produced from 1 barrel of oil?
When starting calculations, it is important to remember that 1 oil barrel contains 158.988 liters of volume. If you average a little, there are 7.3 barrels in 1 ton. In the process of distilling oil and going through all the processes to “transform” it into fuel and products “used” by cars, diesel equipment and self-propelled vehicles, the volume (due to additional additives and chemical reagents) increases by approximately 9 liters. On average, from 1 barrel of crude oil comes out: – 102 liters of gasoline of various octane numbers (there will be no specifics, it all depends on the distillation process), – 30 liters of diesel fuel of various brands, – 25 liters of ultra-pure aviation kerosene, – 7 liters of fuel oil, – 1 liter of motor oil This calculation was taken according to statistics published by Russian oil refineries. If we take into account that the process of distilling crude oil in different countries differs little, we can take these data as a basis, concluding the main thing - today the cost of 1 liter of gasoline at a barrel price of $30.34 and the exchange rate of 79.82 rubles per 1 US dollar should ideally be 23.81 rubles per liter (the cost of a barrel is calculated in rubles and divided by the number of liters - 102). Let us repeat - this is the price taken without taking into account the costs of production, transportation, distillation processes and delivery of gasoline to sales points. The current picture of gasoline prices is as follows: 1 liter of the most common AI 95 ranges from 33.41 to 39.79 rubles per 1 liter (data for Moscow and the Moscow region). Now let's remember that the Russian economy is often called a raw material economy. What does it mean? The lion's share of revenues to the country's budget comes from collected duties and excise taxes on extracted minerals exported by our country, and oil and gas are in the first positions on the list. These are the raw materials from which the above-mentioned processed products are subsequently obtained. To saturate the domestic market, a certain number of hydrocarbons are left, which are sent to oil refineries for further sale within the country. It is worth noting that any mineral has a production cost. On average, the cost of 1 barrel of oil produced costs a Russian oil company $50.
If you do not carry out calculations on the topic of how much refined products of a barrel of oil ultimately cost in total, we can conclude that 102 liters of gasoline in Russia today cost (36.6 * 102 = 3,733). That is, 1 barrel of Russian oil produced at a cost of $50, sold today on the stock exchange for an average of $30 in a processed state in Russia costs 3,733 rubles. At the dollar exchange rate of 79.82 rubles per 1 dollar, this price is more than justified. There is most likely no need to explain why Russian companies (like everyone else in the world) are operating at a loss today. Just like adding that any oil production equipment has its own service life and in the future it will need to be replaced with new ones, and production and processing lines will need to be modernized. The increase in gasoline prices in Russia today is a reality that we must put up with, not because the oil magnates want it, but because the harsh reality insists on it. For subsequent saturation of the market, funds will have to be reserved, production must and will be modernized, production should not stop until humanity finds alternative ways of generating energy in which oil and other minerals are not so needed.
Why is it more convenient to use barrels?
Russian mining companies, in fact, also use the concept of “barrel”, since it is convenient to show the amount of volume produced in one year. For example, if 1 barrel is extracted from a well every day, this indicates that within a year it will be possible to obtain from it, on average, 50 tons of Urals crude oil - it is the main one for Russian exporters.
Interesting: CAGR: what is this indicator and how to calculate it
To summarize, 1 barrel is a unit of volume and is equal to 158.988 liters or 42 gallons. This value is equal to the volume of an oil barrel that was previously transported to oil refining companies. This measure has been used for more than 100 years.
